by Jim Burke
Note: This article originally appeared in Voices from the Middle, the NCTE journal for middle school teachers.
I seem to
learn the right things in the wrong places. For instance I learned to teach by
working in an emergency room. There, in that unlikely classroom, I learned to
listen in eight different directions while answering the phone and correcting
the papers I collected during my student teaching classes that day. These
lessons served me well when I eventually entered the classroom where things
were no less chaotic, exciting, or urgent. Likewise, I learned some of my most
important lessons about writing and sentence structure by reading not a
composition book but The Carpenter's Manifesto (Ehrlich and Mannheimer). In their chapter "Structure," they write:
Structure is the guts of carpentry. It's the soul of your work, the built-in strength that withstands everyday stresses. The concepts of structure are basic and relatively easy to grasp. Once you understand them, you'll be able to design and build more efficiently, more economically. And what you build will be strong and long-lasting." (p. 12)
Central to
their book is the premise of structure and design as ways of thinking:
"Most carpentry projects may seem mysterious at first, their structure and
manner of construction a big unknown even to professional carpenters. Our main
goal…is to communicate to you a way of thinking, of seeing---a method of approaching and solving carpentry problems. (p. 8) And so, while reading a bout carpentry, I was learning about words, for it is with words, from which we make sentences, the building blocks of focused, well-organized paragraphs that we create those larger written works.
To push my
analogy a bit further, I must understand the tools and materials with which I
work if I am to be able to build anything "strong and long-lasting,"
or, more appropriately, anything persuasive and interesting. Moreover, I must
understand how words and sentences work in order to use them in my own writing,
but must also know how others use words, devices, and structures to elicit
certain responses in their reading. We often limit our discussion of grammar to
writing---i.e., improving students' writing---at the cost of developing their
grammatical sense which is part of their textual intelligence. I see many
students who are able writers struggle with the complicated grammar of
challenging writers. They get lost in the structures and the language, thinking
that some sentences are fragments and others are run-ons, while others seem to
be just nonsense. A good example of this last point might be when a word such
as mouth is used in
Paul Lawrence Dunbar's poem "We Wear the Mask" as a verb ("we
mouth myriad subtleties") instead of the noun they take it to be. Given
that the California state test includes a whole section on words that can be
used as either nouns or verbs---e.g., house, block, band, space, command---and challenging writers use language this way all the time, students need to know how to navigate the architecture of the sentences they read.
Such
language study hardly need confine itself to or even be based on such grammar
texts. Students' lives are freighted with language---e.g., in their slang and
music--- that merits study so they learn to appreciate not only how the
language evolved but what it means. The authors of Language Study in Middle School, High School, and Beyond remind readers early on that "language should be a central focus for study in the reading and language arts classroom and that gaining mastery over language can be stimulating, enlightening, and enjoyable." (Simmons and Baines, p.3)
Textual Intelligence
Textual intelligence (TI), a term I like, refers to our knowledge about how texts---literary and informational, on a page or a screen, spoken or written---work. TI requires that students understand the difference between usage---where and when, or under what conditions a word or its meaning is appropriately used---and grammar---the rules that govern the structural relationships between words in sentences. For instance, a student with high textual intelligence would recognize that while "I ain't got ho money" is grammatically correct it does not follow Standard English usage rules.
TI also
applies to how texts are made, and how different grammatical structures create
meaning for or affect the reader. Writers use their textual intelligence when
they do everything from choose the format (poem vs. prose vs. play) or the
purpose (to entertain vs. to inform) or the structure (narrative vs.
expository). They make TI decisions as they choose the point of view, the tense
of the story (past tense, present tense), the use of foreshadowing or
flashbacks. All these choices come from, in part, the writer’s understanding of how language works. Therefore, the more a student understands these workings, the more options he or she has when starting to write.
q I tend to
think of textual intelligence as an intellectual tool belt. Let me return to my
carpenter analogy for a moment to illustrate. When I prepare to make or fix
something---e.g., a bookcase or a water-damaged wall---I have to decide what
tools I need, how the structure works, what materials will work best on this
job. TI asks readers and writers to do the same thing with the texts and interpretations they create by asking questions that lead them to deeper understanding of the written work (see Figure XX for a list of questions for both readers and writers).
q Why write this as an essay instead of a poem or short story or dramatic monologue?
q What type of sentences---e.g., short, staccato ones, or long, rolling ones---are most appropriate for the effect I want to create in the reader?
q How do I create a dark (or anxious or somber or comical) tone in a story?
q Should I use a list here with bullets instead of paragraphs? How do I keep everything in the list parallel?
q What words will make the reader feel that this character (e.g., the Giver) was wise (or, in the case of other books: dangerous, evil, good)?
q What words do I need to choose to make the character in my story come alive for the reader?
In short, I
want students to understand how language shapes meaning and causes in readers
certain feelings. This insight into how texts work will, I hope, give them some
sense of power in a world where language is often used to coerce and confuse
instead of clarify and communicate. As writers and readers, I want my students
to have a tool belt sagging with the intelligence they need to write and read different kinds of texts in different media for different audiences and purposes.
Classroom
Connection: What to Do Tomorrow?
In my class we use grammar to help understand how to read and write better, and to think with greater clarity. How do we do this? We study language by:
q Integrating it into units when it seems appropriate (e.g., have students rewrite a passage into a different tense as part of our study of a story)
q Looking for natural and appropriate opportunities to address grammar in context during class discussions or individual conferences (e.g., breaking down a particular difficult sentence from a book we are studying, identifying the subject and verb, especially if there is a clause or phrase in the sentence).
q Introducing specific grammatical structures through mini-lessons prior to writing or within the context of a particular reading assignment
Before You Begin
q Grammar brainstorms: Draw on the
board or have students divide a page into three columns with NOUNS, VERBS, and
ADJECTIVES at the top of each. What we do next depends on whether we are
preparing to write or read. In one scenario, I will tell students they are
going to watch a short excerpt from a film (e.g., Thin Red Line about World Two). I will have them
generate all sorts of very active verbs, nouns, and adjectives that they might
use to write about this subject. Then, after showing them the scene, I will
have them use as many of the words as they can in a descriptive writing
activity. A good application of this technique might be to have them brainstorm
nouns, verbs, and adjectives appropriate to Boo Radley and his house prior to
showing them the scene from To Kill a Mockingbird. This subject will be familiar enough to them that they can use their own experience to generate strong words which will lead to powerful writing.
q Grammatical synthesis: to help
students in my reading workshop learn how to write about and discuss what they
read, I will ask them to generate a list of adjectives that could be used to
describe a character. This activity allows us not only to reinforce what an
adjective is and how it works, but to synthesize a wide range of information
about a character. It also expands their vocabulary, especially if you revise
the list as you go: "Bill, lonely is a good word, but is there a more precise word we can
think of that describes the way Ana feels in this story?" "How about abandoned?" Kody offers. "Yes!"
q Annotate directions on tests and assignments
to better understand what the directions are asking them to do. I will say,
"Find the verbs," such as "describe" and then tell them to
figure out what they
are supposed to describe by finding the noun (or noun phrase). The following
directions come from an eighth grade literature book. The verbs are underlined
and the appropriate nouns are italicized: "As you read this photo essay, ask yourself
who is pictured in
each photograph and what can I learn about the people in the photos from their facial expressions, clothing,
and settings. What mood or feeling do the
photographs create? Find
several details that describe
what conditions were
like in Sone’s camp."
After You're Finished
q Revise the weak or inappropriate verbs (especially
to have, to be, to get), replacing them with more precise, powerful verbs. The
first time I do this I write on the board the following words, none of which they
can keep in their essay: is, was, am, were, are, weren't, wasn't, isn't, I'm, you're. They freak
out, yelling that they cannot live without these words. After assuring them
there are times when these words are appropriate, I tell them to have fun with it,
think of it as a puzzle. As I move around the room and conference with them
about their sentences, we often talk about the sentence structure and how it
must change to accommodate the new verb. When we first do this work, I am
content if they develop a new awareness of their writing (e.g., "Wow, I
didn't realize I use is so
much: I used it 12 times in this one paragraph!") To reinforce and extend
this way of thinking about writing, I look for places in the books we read to
emphasize the way the author uses precise, active verbs. If I find an especially good page or two, filled with powerful verbs, I will photocopy it and have them locate them; then, time permitting, we will discuss how the words strengthen the sentence.
q Original
sentence: Jem is the character who we can relate to in the To Kill a Mockingbird.
q Revised
sentence: We identify with Jem more than Scout when we read Homer's To Kill a Mockingbird.
q Alternative
version, written by student: Jem, the main character in To Kill a Mockingbird, appeals to the kids today more than his sister Scout.
Anytime
q Change the point of view.
Students often hear verbs described as "action words," a description
that lacks clarity. A more precise definition is that verbs change their form
if you change the tense in a sentence. By recasting the text of a poem, essay,
or narrative into a different tense---past, present, or future---we learn to
appreciate why the author made their original decision. Rewriting the opening
paragraph of To Kill a Mockingbird in the present tense changes the entire perspective from which the story is told. Such exercises help students to understand how language functions to orient the reader in time, and to create different perspectives on the same story or subject.
q Sentence practice: I will write on the board the following sentence (or another like it):
q Walking
down the street, Jem and Scout stopped to check the tree for any new treasures.
I talk to
them about the pattern of the sentence, explaining how the introductory phrase
works. Then I have them generate their own, using mine as a model. I try to
anchor the examples in the book we are reading (e.g., To Kill a Mockingbird) and limit them to the type of sentence I provided (e.g., gerund phrase). We then put students' sentences up on the overhead and discuss them, stopping to address issues, such as mismodification (e.g., Walking down the street, the tree where they hid their treasure was empty.) as they arise. Here are a few more base sentences from which to build more sophisticated ones:
q The bells rang.
q I got out of bed.
q I cut my foot.
q Sentence combining: To improve
students' knowledge of how sentences are made and how they work, I will
sometimes use sentence combining. If possible, I will draw the examples from their reading.
q The judge asked Atticus Finch to defend Tom Robinson.
q Atticus Finch is a lawyer.
q Atticus Finch is respected.
q Tom Robinson was a black man.
q Tom Robinson was accused of raping Mayella Ewell.
q One possible answer: The judge asked Atticus Finch, a respected lawyer, to defend Tom Robinson, a black man accused of raping Mayella Ewell.
q We will then discuss other possibilities and examine how they change the meaning or style of the sentence.
q Here is a sample sequence for further sentence combining practice:
q Spike sold shoes at the Happy Dogs shoe store.
q Spike was a junior at San Francisco State.
q The Happy Dogs shoe store was a small shop located downtown.
q People came into the Happy Dogs shoe store for many styles of shoes.
q They came in for Sahara desert sandals.
q They came in for two-toned wing tips.
q They came in for black leather punk rock shoes with small animals stapled to the side.
q Because Spike wanted to be a podiatrist, he cared about all kinds of feet.
q He cared about skinny, boney feet.
q He cared about big fat feet with hideous nails.
q He cared about pale, stinky feet with collapsed arches.
q Spike told Bennie he did not intend to be a shoe salesman his whole life.
q Bennie was his boss.
q Bennie was a thin man who always wore loafers.
q Spike believed he could be anything he wanted to be.
q He could be a doctor.
q He could be a teacher.
q He could be the owner of Happy Dogs.
Closing Thoughts
We have so much to accomplish in our English Language Arts classes. And we are demanding: we expect our curriculum to make sense. When we feel state standards or district curricula intruding too much on our curriculum, we fear it will fragment the text of our class, rendering it meaningless and ineffective. Grammar and general language instruction is a vital part of any curriculum; as with vocabulary, however, it must maintain its balance and serve a coherent purpose.
Standards
offer me some guidance and students more continuity when it comes to what the
state has outlined as important knowledge. The standards do identify specific knowledge in
grammar/usage such as learning subordination, coordination, and appositives but
also push students toward producing legible papers with correct spelling of
words. Meeting the Standards while
meeting students’ needs is a balancing act and sometimes a judgment
call. Thank goodness for that
emergency room training—it has served me well.
Textual intelligence attempts to create a coherent, logical curriculum that prepares today's students to live and work in tomorrow's society where people must communicate by multiple means. Clarity of thought in such a world will be crucial as we continue to communicate across cultures. The activities outlined in this article move beyond being simple, fun activities, but push students toward conversations about the nature of language and thought as conveyed through the texts we read and create.
As ours
becomes a world made not only of words but images, sounds as well as colors,
all of which are increasingly integrated into multimedia constructions, we must
return to the notion of grammar as
a way of thinking. Grammar goes beyond formal rules of correctness. It is a
means of representing patterns of experience….It enables human beings to
build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their experience of what
goes on around them and inside them….What is expressed in language
through the choice between different word classes and semantic structures, is,
in visual communication, expressed through the choice between, for instance,
different uses of color, or different compositional structures…. 'Grammar
of visual design,' creatively employed by artists is, in the end, the same
grammar we need when producing attractive layouts, images, diagrams, for our
course handouts, reports, brochures, communiqués, and so on. (p. 3 Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, (Kress and van Leeuwen)
To return
to my opening comments about construction, we are left with what the authors of
the Carpenter's Manifesto refer to as the "ubiquitous box" from which all things are made: the sentence. The only difference is that the sentence, governed by various rules, is made of words and images, colors and bytes, shapes and sounds, all of which combine in our new world of evolving language to create within the reader that pleasure we call understanding.
Works Cited
Ehrlich,
Jeffrey and Mannheimer, Marc. The Carpenter's Manifesto: A Total Guide That
Takes All the Mystery out of Carpentry for Everybody. Owl Books: New York, NY. 1990.
Kress,
Gunther and van Leeuwen, Theo. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design.. Routledge Press: New York, NY. 1998.
Simmons,
John. S., and Baines, Lawrence (eds). Language Study in Middle School, High School, and Beyond. International Reading Association: Neward, Delaware. 1998
Recommended Resources
Online Resources
q Grammarlady.com (www.grammarlady.com)
The Grammar Lady describes her site as follows: "The Grammar Hotline/Web site is a one-woman, free service, which I operate at considerable expense (currently without outside support). The purpose is to answer quick grammar, punctuation, spelling, and other points about language."
q Dailygrammar.com (www.dailygrammar.com)
The site's author offers the following
description of his site: " Daily Grammar sends you e-mail messages with a grammar lesson five days of the week and a quiz on the sixth day. You can look at all the lessons in our Archive section."
q Grammar and Style Notes: http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/
"These notes are a miscellany of grammatical rules and explanations, comments on style, and suggestions on usage I put together for my classes."
Books
q O.Conner,
Patricia T. Woe is I: The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in Plain English. Grosset/Putnam Books: New York, NY.1996.
q Lunsford,
Andrea and Connors, Robert. The New St. Martin's Handbook. 1999. Bedford/St. Martin's: Boston, Mass.
q Noden,
Harry R. Image Grammar: Using Grammatical Structures to Teach Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 1999.
Standards Connection
q Sidebar: The English-Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools (K-12) list the following standards for eighth grade under "Written and Oral English Language Conventions":
q Students write and speak with a command of standard English conventions that are appropriate to each grade level.
Sentence Structure:
q use correct and varied sentence types and sentence openings to reinforce the presentation of a lively and effective personal style
q identify and use parallel structure in all written discourse, including similar grammatical forms to present items in a series, complements, and items juxtaposed for emphasis
q use subordination, coordination, apposition, and other devices to indicate the relationship between ideas clearly
Grammar:
q edit written manuscripts to reflect proper grammar
Punctuation and Capitalization:
q use correct punctuation and capitalization
Spelling:
q use correct spelling conventions
q By way of contrast, California expects students in the ninth and tenth grade, to master the following standards in that same area:
q identify and correctly use clauses ( e.g., main and subordinate); phrases (e.g., gerunds, infinitives, and participles); mechanics (e.g., semi-colons, ellipses, and hyphens); usage (e.g., tense consistency); and sentence structure (parallel structure, properly placed modifiers)
Manuscript Form:
q demonstrate control of grammar, paragraph and sentence structure, diction, syntax and usage
q produce legible work that shows accurate spelling and correct use of the conventions of punctuation and capitalization
q reflect appropriate manuscript requirements, including
q title page presentation
q pagination
q spacing and margins
q integration of source and support material (e.g., in-text citation, use of direct quotes, paraphrasing
(Source:
California Academic Standards Commission. 1998. The California Language Arts Content Standards. Sacramento: California Department of Education.)
Jim Burke
teaches English full-time at Burlingame High School. He is the author of four
books, including The English Teacher's Companion (1999) and Reading Reminders: Tools, Tips, and Techniques
(2000). His website, www.englishcompanion.com, offers abundant classroom
resources for teachers. You can reach him at jburke@englishcompanion.com.